HISTORY OF HOCKEY
Where
did hockey originate?
Who set down the first rules of the modern game? What was the FIH set
up to do?
Whether
you’re a history buff or simply want to impress you mates with you knowledge of
the game, discover more about the history of hockey in this article.
The roots of Hockey
are buried deep in antiquity. Historical records show that a crude form of the
game was played in Egypt 4,000 years ago and in Ethiopia around 1,000BC, whilst
an ancient form of the game was also played in Iran in around 2,000BC.
Various museums
offer evidence that a form of the game was played by the Romans and Greeks as
well as by the Aztecs several centuries before Columbus arrived in the New
World.
There is a
depiction of a field hockey-like game in Ancient Greece, dating to see 510 BC,
when the game may have been called Κερητίζειν (kerētízein) because it was played
with a horn (κέρας, kéras, in Ancient Greek) and a ball. Researchers disagree
over how to interpret this image. It could have been a team or one-on-one
activity (the depiction shows two active players and other figures that who may
be teammates awaiting a face-off, or non-players waiting for their turn at
play). Billiards historians Stein and Rubino believe it was among the games
ancestral to lawn-and-field games like hockey and ground billiards, and
near-identical depictions (but with only two figures) appear both in the Beni
Hasan tomb of Ancient Egyptian administrator Khety of the 11th Dynasty (2000 BC),
and in European illuminated manuscripts and other works of the 14th through
17th centuries, showing contemporary courtly and clerical life. In East Asia, a
similar game was entertained, using a carved wooden stick and ball prior, to
300 BC. In Inner Mongolia, China, the Daur people have for about 1,000 years
been playing beikou, a game with some similarities to field hockey. A similar
field hockey or ground billiards variant, called suigan was played in China
during the Ming dynasty (1368–1644, post-dating the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty). A
game similar to field hockey was played in the 17th century in Punjab state in
India under name khido khundi (khido refers to the woolen ball, and khundi to
the stick). In South America, most specifically in Chile, the local natives of
the 16th century used to play a game called chueca, which also shares common
elements with hockey.
The
modern game of hockey emerged in England in the mid-18th century and is largely
attributed to the growth of public schools, such as Eton.
The first
Hockey Association was formed in the UK in 1876 and drew up the first formal
set of rules. The
original association survived for just six years but, in 1886, it was revived
by nine founding member clubs.
The word hockey
itself has no clear origin. One belief is that it was recorded in 1363 when
Edward III of England issued the proclamation: "Moreover we ordain that
you prohibit under penalty of imprisonment all and sundry from such stone, wood
and iron throwing; handball, football, or hockey; coursing and cock-fighting,
or other such idle games." The belief is based on modern translations of
the proclamation, which was originally in Latin and explicitly forbade the
games "Pilam Manualem, Pedivam, & Bacularem: & ad Canibucam &
Gallorum Pugnam". It may be recalled at this point that baculum is the
Latin for 'stick', so the reference would appear to be to a game played with
sticks. The English historian and biographer John Strype did not use the word
"hockey" when he translated the proclamation in 1720, and the word
'hockey' remains of unknown origin.
Field hockey is a widely played team sport of the hockey family. The game can be played on grass, watered turf, artificial turf or synthetic field, as well as an indoor boarded surface. Each team plays with ten field players and a goalkeeper. Players use sticks made of wood, carbon fiber, fiber glass, or a combination of carbon fiber and fiber glass in different quantities, to hit a round, hard, plastic hockey ball. The length of the hockey stick is based on the player's individual height: the top of the stick usually comes to the player’s hip, and taller players typically have longer sticks. The sticks have a round side and a flat side, and only the flat face of the stick is allowed to be used. Use of the other side results in a foul. Goalies often have a different design of stick, although they can also use an ordinary field hockey stick. The specific goal-keeping sticks have another curve at the end of the stick, which is to give it more surface area to block the ball. The uniform consists of shin guards, shoes, shorts or a skirt, a mouth guard and a jersey.
The game is played globally, particularly in parts
of Western Europe, South Asia, Southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand,
Argentina, and parts of the United States, primarily New England and the
Mid-Atlantic states.
Known simply as "hockey" in most
territories, the term "field hockey" is used primarily in Canada and
the United States where ice hockey is more popular. In Sweden, the term
land hockey is used, and to some degree in Norway, where the game is
governed by the Norges Bandy for bund.
During play, goal keepers are the only players
allowed to touch the ball with any part of their body, while field players can
only play the ball with the flat side of their stick. A player's hand is
considered part of the stick if holding the stick. If the ball is touched with
the rounded part of the stick, it will result in a penalty. Goal keepers also
cannot play the ball with the back of their stick.
The team that scores the most goals by the end of
the match wins. If the score is tied at the end of the game, either a draw is
declared or the game goes into extra time, or there is a penalty shoot-out,
depending on the format of the competition. There are many variations to
overtime play that depend on the league or tournament rules. In American
college play, a seven-aside overtime period consists of a 10-minute golden goal
period with seven players for each team. If a tie still remains, the game
enters a one-on-one competition where each team chooses five players to dribble
from the 25-yard (23 m) line down to the circle against the opposing goalie.
The player has eight seconds to score against the goalie while keeping the ball
in bounds. The game ends after a goal is scored, the ball goes out of bounds, a
foul is committed (ending in either a penalty stroke or flick or the end of the
one-on-one) or time expires. If the tie still persists, more rounds are played
until one team has scored.
A popular variant of field hockey is indoor field
hockey, which differs in a number of respects while embodying the primary
principles of hockey. Indoor hockey is a 5-a-side variant, using a field which
is reduced to approximately 40 m × 20 m (131 ft × 66 ft). Although many of the
rules remain the same, including obstruction and feet, there are several key
variations: players may not raise the ball unless shooting at goal, players may
not hit the ball, instead using pushes to transfer it, and the sidelines are
replaced with solid barriers, from which the ball will rebound and remain in
play. In addition, the regulation guidelines for the indoor field hockey stick
require a slightly thinner, lighter stick than an outdoor one.
Field of Play
Most hockey field dimensions were originally fixed
using whole numbers of imperial measures. Nevertheless, metric measurements are
now the official dimensions as laid down by the International Hockey Federation
(FIH) in the "Rules of Hockey". The pitch is a 91.4 m × 55 m (100.0yd
× 60.1yd) rectangular field. At each end is a goal 2.14 m (7ft) high and 3.66 m
(12ft) wide, as well as lines across the field 22.90 m (25yd) from each
end-line (generally referred to as the 23-metre lines or the 25-yard lines) and
in the center of the field. A spot 0.15 m (6 in) in diameter, called the
penalty spot or stroke mark, is placed with its center 6.40 m (7yd) from the center
of each goal. The shooting circle is 15 m (16yd) from the base line.
Field hockey goals are made of two upright posts,
joined at the top by a horizontal crossbar, with a net positioned to catch the
ball when it passes through the goalposts. The goalposts and crossbar must be
white and rectangular in shape, and should be 2 in (51mm) wide and 2–3 in
(51–76mm) deep. Field hockey goals also include sideboards and a backboard,
which stand 50cm (20in) from the ground. The backboard runs the full 3.66 m (12ft)
width of the goal, while the sideboards are 1.2 m (3ft 11in) deep.
Historically the game developed on natural grass
turf. In the early 1970s, "synthetic grass" fields began to be used
for hockey, with the first Olympic Games on this surface being held at Montreal
in 1976. Synthetic pitches are now mandatory for all international tournaments
and for most national competitions. While hockey is still played on traditional
grass fields at some local levels and lesser national divisions, it has been
replaced by synthetic surfaces almost everywhere in the western world. There
are three main types of artificial hockey surface.
Unfilled or water based
– artificial fibers that are densely packed for stabilization, require
irrigation or watering to avoid pitch wear.
Dressed or sand dressed
– artificial fibers can be less densely packed and sand supports the fibers for
part of the pile depth.
Filled or sand filled
– artificial fibers can be longer and less densely packed and sand supports the
fibers for 100% of the pile depth.
Since the 1970s, sand-based pitches have been favored
as they dramatically speed up the game. However, in recent years there has been
a massive increase in the number of "water-based" artificial turfs.
Water-based synthetic turfs enable the ball to be transferred more quickly than
on sand-based surfaces. It is this characteristic that has made them the
surface of choice for international and national league competitions.
Water-based surfaces are also less abrasive than sand-based surfaces and reduce
the level of injury to players when they come into contact with the surface.
The FIH are now proposing that new surfaces being laid should be of a hybrid
variety which require less watering. This is due to the negative ecological
effects of the high water requirements of water-based synthetic fields. It has
also been stated that the decision to make artificial surfaces mandatory
greatly favored more affluent countries who could afford these new pitches.
The game is played between two teams of eleven, 10
field players and one goal keeper, are permitted to be on the pitch at any one
time. The remaining players may be substituted in any combination. There are an
unlimited number of times a team can sub in and out. Substitutions are
permitted at any point in the game, apart from between the award and end of a
penalty corner; two exceptions to this rule is for injury or suspension of the
defending goalkeeper, which is not allowed when playing with a field keep, or a
player can exit the field, but you must wait until after the inserter touches
the ball to put somebody back in.
Players are permitted to play the ball with the flat
of the 'face side' and with the edges of the head and handle of the field
hockey stick with the exception that, for reasons of safety, the ball may not
be struck 'hard' with a forehand edge stroke, because of the difficulty of
controlling the height and direction of the ball from that stroke.
The flat side is always on the "natural"
side for a right-handed person swinging the stick at the ball from right to
left. Left-handed sticks are rare, but available; however they are pointless as
the rules forbid their use in a game. To make a strike at the ball with a
left-to-right swing the player must present the flat of the 'face' of the stick
to the ball by 'reversing' the stick head, i.e. by turning the handle through
approximately 180° (while a reverse edge hit would turn the stick head through
approximately 90° from the position of an upright forehand stroke with the
'face' of the stick head).
Edge hitting of the ball underwent a two-year
"experimental period", twice the usual length of an "experimental
trial" and is still a matter of some controversy within the game. Ric
Charlesworth, the former Australian coach, has been a strong critic of the
unrestricted use of the reverse edge hit. The 'hard' forehand edge hit was
banned after similar concerns were expressed about the ability of players to
direct the ball accurately, but the reverse edge hit does appear to be more
predictable and controllable than its counterpart. This type of hit is now more
commonly referred to as the "forehand sweep" where the ball is hit
with the flat side or "natural" side of the stick and not the rounded
edge.
Other rules include; no foot-to-ball contact, no use
of hands, no obstructing other players, no high back swing, no hacking, and no
third party. If a player is dribbling the ball and either loses control and
kicks the ball or another player interferes that player is not permitted to
gain control and continue dribbling. The rules do not allow the person who
kicked the ball to gain advantage from the kick, so the ball will automatically
be passed on to the opposing team. Conversely, if no advantage is gained from
kicking the ball, play should continue. Players may not obstruct another's
chance of hitting the ball in any way. No shoving/using your body/stick to
prevent advancement in the other team. Penalty for this is the opposing team
receives the ball and if the problem continues, the player can be carded. While
a player is taking a free hit or starting a corner the back swing of their hit
cannot be too high for this is considered dangerous. Finally there may not be
three players touching the ball at one time. Two players from opposing teams
can battle for the ball, however if another player interferes it is considered
third party and the ball automatically goes to the team who only had one player
involved in the third party.
A match ordinarily consists of two periods of 35
minutes and a halftime interval of 5 minutes. Other periods and interval may be
agreed by both teams except as specified in Regulations for particular
competitions. Since 2014, some International games have four 15-minute quarters
with 2 minutes break between each quarter and 15 minutes break between quarter
two and three. At the 2018 Commonwealth Games Held on the Gold Coast in
Brisbane, Australia the hockey games for both men and women had four 15-minute
quarters.
In December 2018 the FIH announced rule changes that
would make 15-minute quarters universal from January 2019. England Hockey
confirmed that while no changes would be made to the domestic game mid-season,
the new rules would be implemented at the start of the 2019–20 seasons.
However, in July 2019 England Hockey announced that 17.5-minute quarters would
only be implemented in elite domestic club games.
The game begins with a pass back from the center-forward
usually to the center-half back from the halfway line; the opposing team cannot
try to tackle this play until the ball has been pushed back. The team consists
of eleven players; the players are usually set up as follows: Goalkeeper, Left
Fullback, Right Fullback, 3 half-backs and 4 forwards consisting of Left Wing,
Left Inner, Right Inner and Right Wing. Contradictory these positions can
change and adapt throughout the course of the game depending on the attacking
and defensive style of the opposition.
Positions
When hockey positions are discussed, notions of
fluidity are very common. Each team can be fielded with a maximum of 11 players
and will typically arrange themselves into forwards, midfielders, and defensive
players (fullbacks) with players frequently moving between these lines with the
flow of play. Each team may also play with:
* A goalkeeper who wears a different color shirt and
full protective equipment comprising at least headgear, leg guards and kickers;
this player is referred to in the rules as a goalkeeper; or
* Only field players; no player has goalkeeping
privileges or wears a different color shirt; no player may wear protective
headgear except a face mask when defending a penalty corner or stroke.
As hockey has a very dynamic style of play, it is
difficult to simplify positions to the static formations which are common in
association football. Although positions will typically be categorized as fullback,
halfback, midfield/inner or striker, it is important for players to have an
understanding of every position on the field. For example, it is not uncommon
to see a halfback overlap and end up in either attacking position, with the
midfield and strikers being responsible for re-adjusting to fill the space they
left. Movement between lines like this is particularly common across all
positions.
This fluid Australian culture of hockey has been
responsible for developing an international trend towards players occupying
spaces on the field, not having assigned positions. Although they may have
particular spaces on the field which they are more comfortable and effective as
players, they are responsible for occupying the space nearest them. This fluid
approach to hockey and player movement has made it easy for teams to transition
between formations such as; "3 at the back", "5 midfields",
"2 at the front", and more.
When the ball is inside the circle they are
defending and they have their stick in their hand, goalkeepers wearing full
protective equipment are permitted to use their stick, feet, kickers or leg
guards to propel the ball and to use their stick, feet, kickers, leg guards or
any other part of their body to stop the ball or deflect it in any direction
including over the back line. Similarly, field players are permitted to use
their stick. They are not allowed to use their feet and legs to propel the
ball, stop the ball or deflect it in any direction including over the back
line. However, neither goalkeepers, nor players with goalkeeping privileges are
permitted to conduct themselves in a manner which is dangerous to other players
by taking advantage of the protective equipment they wear.
Neither goalkeepers nor players with goalkeeping
privileges may lie on the ball; however, they are permitted to use arms, hands
and any other part of their body to push the ball away. Lying on the ball
deliberately will result in a penalty stroke, whereas if an umpire deems a
goalkeeper has lain on the ball accidentally (e.g. it gets stuck in their
protective equipment), a penalty corner is awarded.
*
The action above is permitted only as part of a goal saving action or to move
the ball away from the possibility of a goal scoring action by opponents. It
does not permit a goalkeeper or player with goalkeeping privileges to propel
the ball forcefully with arms, hands or body so that it travels a long distance
When the ball is outside the circle they are
defending, goalkeepers or players with goalkeeping privileges are only
permitted to play the ball with their stick. Further, a goalkeeper, or player
with goalkeeping privileges who is wearing a helmet, must not take part in the
match outside the 23m area they are defending, except when taking a penalty
stroke. A goalkeeper must wear protective headgear at all times, except when
taking a penalty stroke.
For the purposes of the rules, all players on the
team in possession of the ball are attackers, and those on the team without the
ball are defenders, yet throughout the game being played you are always
"defending" your goal and "attacking" the opposite goal.
The match is officiated by two field umpires. Traditionally
each umpire generally controls half of the field, divided roughly diagonally.
These umpires are often assisted by a technical bench including a timekeeper
and record keeper.
Prior to the start of the game, a coin is tossed and
the winning captain can choose a starting end or whether to start with the
ball. Since 2017 the game consists of four periods of 15 minutes with a
2-minute break after every period, and a 15-minute intermission at half time
before changing ends. At the start of each period, as well as after goals are
scored, play is started with a pass from the center of the field. All players
must start in their defensive half (apart from the player making the pass), but
the ball may be played in any direction along the floor. Each team starts with
the ball in one half, and the team that conceded the goal has possession for
the restart. Teams trade sides at halftime.
Field players may only play the ball with the face
of the stick. If the back side of the stick is used, it is a penalty and the
other team will get the ball back. Tackling is permitted as long as the tackler
does not make contact with the attacker or the other person's stick before
playing the ball (contact after the tackle may also be penalized if the tackle
was made from a position where contact was inevitable). Further, the player
with the ball may not deliberately use his body to push a defender out of the
way.
Field players may not play the ball with their feet,
but if the ball accidentally hits the feet, and the player gains no benefit
from the contact, then the contact is not penalized. Although there has been a
change in the wording of this rule from 1 January 2007, the current FIH
umpires' briefing instructs umpires not to change the way they interpret this
rule.
Obstruction
typically occurs in three circumstances –
when a defender comes between the player with possession and the ball in order
to prevent them tackling; when a defender's stick comes between the attacker's
stick and the ball or makes contact with the attacker's stick or body; and also
when blocking the opposition's attempt to tackle a teammate with the ball. When
the ball passes completely over the sidelines (on the sideline is still in), it
is returned to play with a sideline hit, taken by a member of the team whose
players were not the last to touch the ball before crossing the sideline. The
ball must be placed on the sideline, with the hit taken from as near the place
the ball went out of play as possible. If it crosses the back line after last
touched by an attacker, a 15 m (16 yd.) hit is awarded. A 15 m hit is also
awarded for offences committed by the attacking side within 15 m of the end of
the pitch they are attacking.
Set plays are often utilized for specific situations
such as a penalty corner or free hit. For instance, many teams have penalty
corner variations that they can use to beat the defensive team. The coach may
have plays that sends the ball between two defenders and lets the player attack
the opposing team's goal. There are no set plays unless your team has them.
Free hits are awarded when offences are committed
outside the scoring circles (the term 'free hit' is standard usage but the ball
need not be hit). The ball may be hit, pushed or lifted in any direction by the
team offended against. The ball can be lifted from a free hit but not by
hitting, you must flick or scoop to lift from a free hit. (In previous versions
of the rules, hits in the area outside the circle in open play have been
permitted but lifting one direction from a free hit was prohibited). Opponents
must move 5 m (5.5 yd.) from the ball when a free hit is awarded. A free hit
must be taken from within playing distance of the place of the offence for
which it was awarded and the ball must be stationary when the free hit is
taken.
As mentioned above, a 15 m hit is awarded if an
attacking player commits a foul forward of that line, or if the ball passes
over the back line off an attacker. These free hits are taken in-line with
where the foul was committed (taking a line parallel with the sideline between
where the offence was committed, or the ball went out of play). When an
attacking free hit is awarded within 5 m of the circle everyone including the
person taking the penalty must be five meters from the circle and everyone
apart from the person taking the free hit must be five meters away from the
ball. When taking an attacking free hit, the ball may not be hit straight into
the circle if you are within your attacking 23 meter area (25-yard area). It
must travel 5 meters before going in.
A free hit from the 23-metre line – called a long
corner – is awarded to the attacking team if
the ball goes over the back-line after last being touched by a defender,
provided they do not play it over the back-line deliberately, in which case a
penalty corner is awarded. This free hit is played by the attacking team from a
spot on the 23-metre line, in line with where the ball went out of play. All
the parameters of an attacking free hit within the attacking quarter of the
playing surface apply.
For an offence by a defender in the circle which
does not prevent the probable scoring of a goal; for an intentional offence in
the circle by a defender against an opponent who does not have possession of
the ball or an opportunity to play the ball; for an intentional offence by a
defender outside the circle but within the 23-metre area they are defending; for
intentionally playing the ball over the back line by a defender; when the ball
becomes lodged in a player's clothing or equipment while in the circle they are
defending.
Short corners begin with five defenders (usually
including the keeper) positioned behind the back line and the ball placed at
least 10 yards from the nearest goal post. All other players in the defending
team must be beyond the center line, that is not in their 'own' half of the
pitch, until the ball is in play. Attacking players begin the play standing
outside the scoring circle, except for one attacker who starts the corner by
playing the ball from a mark 10 m either side of the goal (the circle has a
14.63 m radius). This player puts the ball into play by pushing or hitting the
ball to the other attackers outside the circle; the ball must pass outside the
circle and then put back into the circle before the attackers may make a shot
at the goal from which a goal can be scored. FIH rules do not forbid a shot at
goal before the ball leaves the circle after being 'inserted', nor is a shot at
the goal from outside the circle prohibited, but a goal cannot be scored at all
if the ball has not gone out of the circle and cannot be scored from a shot
from outside the circle if it is not again played by an attacking player before
it enters the goal.
For safety reasons, the first shot of a penalty
corner must not exceed 460 mm high (the height of the "backboard" of
the goal) at the point it crosses the goal line if it is hit. However, if the
ball is deemed to be below backboard height, the ball can be subsequently
deflected above this height by another player (defender or attacker), providing
that this deflection does not lead to danger. Note that the "Slap"
stroke (a sweeping motion towards the ball, where the stick is kept on or close
to the ground when striking the ball) is classed as a hit, and so the first
shot at goal must be below backboard height for this type of shot also.
If the first shot at goal in a short corner
situation is a push, flick or scoop, in particular the drag flick (which has
become popular at international and national league standards), the shot is
permitted to rise above the height of the backboard, as long as the shot is not
deemed dangerous to any opponent. This form of shooting was developed because
it is not height restricted in the same way as the first hit shot at the goal
and players with good technique are able to drag-flick with as much power as
many others can hit a ball.
A penalty stroke is awarded when a defender commits
a foul in the circle (accidental or otherwise) that prevents a probable goal or
commits a deliberate foul in the circle or if defenders repeatedly run from the
back line too early at a penalty corner. The penalty stroke is taken by a
single attacker in the circle, against the goalkeeper, from a spot 6.4 m from
goal. The ball is played only once at goal by the attacker using a push, flick
or scoop stroke. If the shot is saved, play is restarted with a 15 m hit to the
defenders. When a goal is scored, play is restarted in the normal way.
According to the current Rules of Hockey 2019 issued
by the FIH there are only two criteria for a dangerously played ball. The first
is legitimate evasive action by an opponent (what constitutes legitimate
evasive action is an umpiring judgment). The second is specific to the rule
concerning a shot at goal at a penalty corner but is generally, if somewhat
inconsistently, applied throughout the game and in all parts of the pitch: it
is that a ball lifted above knee height and at an opponent who is within 5m of
the ball is certainly dangerous.
The velocity of the ball is not mentioned in the
rules concerning a dangerously played ball. A ball that hits a player above the
knee may on some occasions not be penalized; this is at the umpire's
discretion. A jab tackle, for example, might accidentally lift the ball above
knee height into an opponent from close range but at such low velocity as not
to be, in the opinion of the umpire, dangerous play. In the same way a
high-velocity hit at very close range into an opponent, but below knee height,
could be considered to be dangerous or reckless play in the view of the umpire,
especially when safer alternatives are open to the striker of the ball.
A ball that has been lifted high so that it will
fall among close opponents may be deemed to be potentially dangerous and play
may be stopped for that reason. A lifted ball that is falling to a player in
clear space may be made potentially dangerous by the actions of an opponent
closing to within 5m of the receiver before the ball has been controlled to ground
– a rule which is often only loosely applied; the distance allowed is often
only what might be described as playing distance, 2–3 m, and opponents tend to
be permitted to close on the ball as soon as the receiver plays it: these
unofficial variations are often based on the umpire's perception of the skill
of the players i.e. on the level of the game, in order to maintain game flow,
which umpires are in general in both Rules and Briefing instructed to do, by
not penalizing when it is unnecessary to do so; this is also a matter at the
umpire's discretion.
The term "falling ball" is important in
what may be termed encroaching offences. It is generally only considered an
offence to encroach on an opponent receiving a lifted ball that has been lifted
to above head height (although the height is not specified in rule) and is
falling. So, for example, a lifted shot at the goal which is still rising as it
crosses the goal line (or would have been rising as it crossed the goal line)
can be legitimately followed up by any of the attacking team looking for a
rebound.
Hockey
uses a three-tier penalty card system of warnings and suspensions:
When
shown a green card, the player may have to leave the
field for two minutes, depending on national regulations, though at
international standards the player has to leave the field for two minutes, but
any further infractions will result in a yellow or red card.
A
red card, just like in association football, is
a permanent exclusion from the rest of the game, without substitution, and
usually results in the player being banned for a certain period of time or
number of matches (this is governed by local playing conditions, rather than
the rules of field hockey). The player must also leave the pitch and
surrounding area.
The teams' object is to play the ball into their
attacking circle and, from there, hit, push or flick the ball into the goal,
scoring a goal. The team with more goals after 60 minutes wins the game. The
playing time may be shortened, particularly when younger players are involved,
or for some tournament play. If the game is played in a countdown clock, like
ice hockey, a goal can only count if the ball completely crosses the goal line
and into the goal before time expires, not when the ball leaves the stick in
the act of shooting.
In many competitions (such as regular club
competition, or in pool games in FIH international tournaments such as the
Olympics or the World Cup), a tied result stands and the overall competition
standings are adjusted accordingly. Since March 2013, when tie breaking is
required, the official FIH Tournament Regulations mandate to no longer have
extra time and go directly into a penalty shoot-out when a classification match
ends in a tie. However, many associations follow the previous procedure
consisting of two periods of 7.5 minutes of "golden goal" extra time
during which the game ends as soon as one team scores.
The FIH implemented a two-year rules cycle with the
2007–08 editions of the rules, with the intention that the rules be reviewed on
a biennial basis. The 2009 rulebook was officially released in early March 2009
(effective 1 May 2009), however the FIH published the major changes in
February. The current rule book is effective from 1 January 2019.
The FIH has adopted a policy of including major
changes to the rules as "Mandatory Experiments", showing that they
must be played at international level, but are treated as experimental and will
be reviewed before the next rulebook is published and either changed, approved
as permanent rules, or deleted.
There are sometimes minor variations in rules from
competition to competition; for instance, the duration of matches is often
varied for junior competitions or for carnivals. Different national associations
also have slightly differing rules on player equipment.
The new Euro Hockey League and the Olympics has made
major alterations to the rules to aid television viewers, such as splitting the
game into four-quarters, and to try to improve player behavior, such as a
two-minute suspension for green cards—the latter was also used in the 2010
World Cup and 2016 Olympics. In the United States, the NCAA has its own rules
for inter-collegiate competitions; high school associations similarly play to
different rules, usually using the rules published by the National Federation
of State High School Associations (NFHS). This article assumes FIH rules unless
otherwise stated. USA Field Hockey produces an annual summary of the
differences.
In the United States, the games at the junior high
level consist of four 12-minute periods, while the high-school level consists
of two 30-minute periods. Many private American schools play 12-minute
quarters, and some have adopted FIH rules rather than NFHS rules.
Players are required to wear mouth guards and shin
guards in order to play the game. Also, there is a newer rule requiring certain
types of sticks be used. In recent years, the NFHS rules have moved closer to
FIH, but in 2011 a new rule requiring protective eyewear was introduced for the
2011 Fall season. Further clarification of NFHS's rule requiring protective
eyewear states, "Effective 1 January 2019, all eye protection shall be
permanently labeled with the current ASTM 2713 standard for field hockey."
Metal 'cage style' goggles favored by US high school lacrosse and permitted in
high school field hockey is prohibited under FIH rules.
Field
hockey stick
Each player carries a "stick" that
normally measures between 80 and 95 cm (31–38"); shorter or longer sticks
are available. Sticks were traditionally made of wood, but are now often made
also with fiberglass, Kevlar or carbon fiber composites. Metal is forbidden
from use in field hockey sticks, due to the risk of injury from sharp edges if
the stick were to break. The stick has a rounded handle, has a J-shaped hook at
the bottom, and is flattened on the left side (when looking down the handle
with the hook facing upwards). All sticks must be right-handed; left-handed
ones are prohibited.
There was traditionally a slight curve (called the
bow, or rake) from the top to bottom of the face side of the stick and another
on the 'heel' edge to the top of the handle (usually made according to the
angle at which the handle part was inserted into the splice of the head part of
the stick), which assisted in the positioning of the stick head in relation to
the ball and made striking the ball easier and more accurate.
The hook at the bottom of the stick was only
recently the tight curve (Indian style) that we have nowadays. The older
'English' sticks had a longer bend, making it very hard to use the stick on the
reverse. For this reason players now use the tight curved sticks.
The handle makes up about the top third of the
stick. It is wrapped in a grip similar to that used on tennis racket. The grip
may be made of a variety of materials, including chamois leather, which
improves grip in the wet and gives the stick a softer touch and different
weighting it wrapped over a preexisting grip.
It was recently discovered that increasing the depth
of the face bow made it easier to get high speeds from the drag flick and made
the stroke easier to execute. At first, after this feature was introduced, the
Hockey Rules Board placed a limit of 50 mm on the maximum depth of bow over the
length of the stick but experience quickly demonstrated this to be excessive.
New rules now limit this curve to under 25 mm so as to limit the power with
which the ball can be flicked.
Standard field hockey balls are hard spherical
balls, made of solid plastic (sometimes over a cork core), and are usually
white, although they can be any color as long as they contrast with the playing
surface. The balls have a diameter of 71.3–74.8 mm (2.81–2.94 in) and a mass of
156–163 g (5.5–5.7 Oz). The ball is often covered with indentations to reduce
aquaplaning that can cause an inconsistent ball speed on wet surfaces.
The 2007 rulebook saw major changes regarding
goalkeepers. A fully equipped goalkeeper must wear a helmet, leg guards and
kickers, and like all players, they must carry a stick. Goalkeepers may use
either a field player's stick or a specialized goalkeeping stick provided
always the stick is of legal dimensions. Usually field hockey goalkeepers also
wear extensive additional protective equipment including chest guards, padded
shorts, heavily padded hand protectors, groin protectors, neck protectors and
arm guards. A goalie may not cross the 23 m line, the sole exception to this
being if the goalkeeper is to take a penalty stroke at the other end of the
field, when the clock is stopped. The goalkeeper can also remove their helmet
for this action. While goalkeepers are allowed to use their feet and hands to
clear the ball, like field players they may only use the one side of their
stick. Slide tackling is permitted as long as it is with the intention of
clearing the ball, not aimed at a player.
It is now also even possible for teams to have a
full eleven outfield players and no goalkeeper at all. No player may wear a
helmet or other goalkeeping equipment; neither will any player be able to play
the ball with any other part of the body than with their stick. This may be
used to offer a tactical advantage, for example, if a team is trailing with
only a short time to play, or to allow for play to commence if no goalkeeper or
kit is available.
The basic tactic in field hockey, as in association
football and many other team games, is to outnumber the opponent in a
particular area of the field at a moment in time. When in possession of the
ball this temporary numerical superiority can be used to pass the ball around
opponents so that they cannot effect a tackle because they cannot get within
playing reach of the ball and to further use this numerical advantage to gain
time and create clear space for making scoring shots on the opponent's goal.
When not in possession of the ball numerical superiority is used to isolate and
channel an opponent in possession and 'mark out' any passing options so that an
interception or a tackle may be made to gain possession. Highly skillful
players can sometimes get the better of more than one opponent and retain the
ball and successfully pass or shoot but this tends to use more energy than
quick early passing.
Every player has a role depending on their
relationship to the ball if the team communicates throughout the play of the
game. There will be players on the ball (offensively – ball carriers;
defensively – pressure, support players, and movement players.
The main methods by which the ball is moved around
the field by players are a) passing b) pushing the ball and running with it
controlled to the front or right of the body and c) "dribbling";
where the player controls the ball with the stick and moves in various directions
with it to elude opponents. To make a pass the ball may be propelled with a
pushing stroke, where the player uses their wrists to push the stick head
through the ball while the stick head is in contact with it; the
"flick" or "scoop", similar to the push but with an
additional arm and leg and rotational actions to lift the ball off the ground;
and the "hit", where a swing at ball is taken and contact with it is
often made very forcefully, causing the ball to be propelled at velocities in
excess of 70 mph (110 km/h). In order to produce a powerful hit, usually for
travel over long distances or shooting at the goal, the stick is raised higher
and swung with maximum power at the ball, a stroke sometimes known as a
"drive".
Tackles are made by placing the stick into the path
of the ball or playing the stick head or shaft directly at the ball. To
increase the effectiveness of the tackle, players will often place the entire
stick close to the ground horizontally, thus representing a wider barrier. To
avoid the tackle, the ball carrier will either pass the ball to a teammate
using any of the push, flick, or hit strokes, or attempt to maneuver or
"drag" the ball around the tackle, trying to deceive the tackler.
In recent years, the penalty corner has gained
importance as a goal scoring opportunity. Particularly with the technical
development of the drag flick. Tactics at penalty corners to set up time for a
shot with a drag flick or a hit shot at the goal involve various complex plays,
including multiple passes before deflections towards the goal is made but the
most common method of shooting is the direct flick or hit at the goal.
At the highest level, field hockey is a fast moving,
highly skilled game, with players using fast moves with the stick, quick
accurate passing, and hard hits, in attempts to keep possession and move the
ball towards the goal. Tackling with physical contact and otherwise physically
obstructing players is not permitted. Some of the tactics used resemble
football (soccer), but with greater ball speed.
The inaugural Olympic Hockey Competition for men was
held in London in 1908 with England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales competing
separately. With the addition of Germany and France, the competition ran with
six teams.
After having made its first appearance at the London
Games, hockey was subsequently dropped from the 1912 Stockholm Games after host
nations were granted control over ‘optional sports’. It reappeared in 1920 in
Antwerp after pressure from Belgian hockey advocates before being omitted again
in Paris in 1924.
The formation of the International Hockey Federation
in 1924 was not soon enough for the Paris Olympics but it did grant hockey
re-entry in Amsterdam in 1928. Hockey has been on the programme ever since,
with women's hockey included for the first time in Moscow in 1980.
Motivated by hockey’s mission from the 1924 Paris
Games, the Federation International de Hockey sur Gazon (FIH) was founded by
Paul Léautey. M. Léautey, who would later become the first president of the
FIH, called together seven National Federations to form the sport’s
international governing body.
These founding members, which represented both men's
and women's hockey in their countries, were Austria, Belgium, Czechoslovakia,
France, Hungary, Spain and Switzerland.
Popularized in the late 19th century, the women’s
game developed quickly in many countries. In 1927, the International Federation
of Women's Hockey Associations (IFWHA) was formed. After celebrating their
respective Golden Jubilees - the FIH in 1974 and the IFWHA in 1980 - the two organizations
came together in 1982 to form the current FIH.
By 1964, there were already 50 countries affiliated
with the FIH, as well as three Continental Associations - Africa, Pan America
and Asia - and in 1974, there were 71 members. Today, the International Hockey
Federation consists of five Continental Associations, 137 National Associations
and is still growing.
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